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      string: '{"assessment_date":"2020-12-18T00:00:00.000Z","year_published":"2021","latest":true,"possibly_extinct":false,"possibly_extinct_in_the_wild":false,"sis_taxon_id":22694927,"criteria":"A2abcde+4abcde","url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22694927/166290968","citation":"BirdLife
        International 2021. Fratercula arctica (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List
        of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22694927A166290968. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694927A166290968.en.
        Accessed on 30 April 2025.","assessment_id":166290968,"assessment_points":false,"assessment_ranges":true,"taxon":{"sis_id":22694927,"scientific_name":"Fratercula
        arctica","species_taxa":[],"subpopulation_taxa":[],"infrarank_taxa":[],"kingdom_name":"ANIMALIA","phylum_name":"CHORDATA","class_name":"AVES","order_name":"CHARADRIIFORMES","family_name":"ALCIDAE","genus_name":"Fratercula","species_name":"arctica","subpopulation_name":null,"infra_name":null,"authority":"(Linnaeus,
        1758)","species":true,"subpopulation":false,"infrarank":false,"ssc_groups":[{"name":"IUCN
        SSC Bird Red List Authority (BirdLife International)","url":"https://www.birdlife.org/","description":"Red
        List Authority Coordinator: Ian Burfield (ian.burfield@birdlife.org)"}],"common_names":[{"main":false,"name":"Puffin","language":"eng"},{"main":true,"name":"Atlantic
        Puffin","language":"eng"}],"synonyms":[]},"population_trend":{"description":{"en":"Decreasing"},"code":"1"},"red_list_category":{"version":"3.1","description":{"en":"Endangered"},"code":"EN"},"supplementary_info":{"upper_elevation_limit":null,"lower_elevation_limit":null,"lower_depth_limit":null,"upper_depth_limit":null,"population_size":"7400000-8240000,7820000","population_severely_fragmented":"No","population_continuing_decline":"Yes","generational_length":"17","congregatory":"Congregatory
        (and dispersive)","movement_patterns":"Full Migrant","continuing_decline_in_area":"Unknown","conservation_actions_in_place":[{"name":"In-place
        research and monitoring","actions":[{"name":"Action Recovery Plan","value":"Yes"},{"name":"Systematic
        monitoring scheme","value":"No"}]},{"name":"In-place land/water protection","actions":[{"name":"Conservation
        sites identified","value":"Yes, over entire range"},{"name":"Occurs in at
        least one protected area","value":"Yes"},{"name":"Invasive species control
        or prevention","value":"No"}]},{"name":"In-place species management","actions":[{"name":"Successfully
        reintroduced or introduced benignly","value":"No"},{"name":"Subject to ex-situ
        conservation","value":"No"}]},{"name":"In-place education","actions":[{"name":"Subject
        to recent education and awareness programmes","value":"No"},{"name":"Included
        in international legislation","value":"Yes"},{"name":"Subject to any international
        management / trade controls","value":"No"}]}],"identification_information":null,"extreme_fluctuations":"No","no_of_subpopulations":null,"continuing_decline_in_subpopulations":"Unknown","extreme_fluctuations_in_subpopulations":"No","all_individuals_in_one_subpopulation":"No","no_of_individuals_in_largest_subpopulation":null,"estimated_area_of_occupancy":null,"continuing_decline_in_area_of_occupancy":"Unknown","extreme_fluctuations_in_area_of_occupancy":"No","estimated_extent_of_occurence":null,"continuing_decline_in_extent_of_occurence":"Unknown","extreme_fluctuations_in_extent_of_occurence":"No","continuing_decline_in_number_of_locations":"Unknown","extreme_fluctuations_in_number_of_locations":"No"},"documentation":{"range":"The
        species can be found throughout the North Atlantic Ocean. In Europe, it occurs
        in north-west Greenland (to Denmark), and from north Norway down to the Canary
        Islands, Spain in the east (Nettleship \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e
        2014), and breeds primarily in Norway and Iceland, and also notably in the
        United Kingdom and the Faroe Islands.","population":"The European breeding
        population is estimated at 3,700,000-4,120,000 pairs, which equates to\u0026#160;7,400,000-8,240,000
        mature individuals. The breeding population in the EU28 is estimated at 601,000-602,000
        pairs, which equates to 1,200,000-1,210,000 mature individuals. For details
        of national estimates, see the Supplementary Information.","habitats":"The
        breeding range is restricted to colder parts of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans,
        with its southernmost colonies in Brittany (France).\u0026#160; Breeding colonies
        are located in Iceland, Norway, Faroe Islands, the U.K., Ireland and France
        on islands or high cliffs.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eThe species nests
        on grassy maritime slopes, sea cliffs and rocky slopes (Nettleship \u003cem\u003eet
        al.\u003c/em\u003e 2014). During the winter the species is highly pelagic
        and is dispersed widely across the sea from the Azores to the western Mediterranean
        and Canary Islands. When feeding chicks, birds generally forage within 10
        km of their colony, but may range as far as 50 to 100 km or more (Harris 1984,
        Rodway and Montevecchi 1996). Birds of this species are pursuit-divers that
        catch most of their prey within 30 m of the water surface (Piatt and Nettleship
        1985). They prey on ''forage'' species, including juvenile pelagic fishes,
        such as herring (\u003cem\u003eClupea harengus\u003c/em\u003e), juvenile and
        adult capelin (\u003cem\u003eMallotus villosus\u003c/em\u003e), and sand eel
        (\u003cem\u003eAmmodytes \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003espp.\u003c/em\u003e)
        (Barrett \u003cem\u003eet al. \u003c/em\u003e1987). At times, they also prey
        on juvenile demersal fishes, such as gadids (Harris and Hislop 1978, Martin
        1989, Rodway and Montevecchi 1996). Sand eels usually form the majority of
        the prey fed to chicks (Corkhill 1973, Hislop and Harris 1985, Harris and
        Wanless 1986, Harris and Riddiford 1989, Martin 1989), and many chicks starve
        during periods of low sand eel abundance (Martin 1989).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eAlthough
        the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated
        using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments
        were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new
        information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to
        a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.","threats":"This
        species is highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, such as sea
        temperature rise and shifts in prey distribution and abundance (Durant \u003cem\u003eet
        al.\u003c/em\u003e 2003, Sandvik \u003cem\u003eet al. \u003c/em\u003e2005).
        This is a particularly important threat when prey species are exploited unsustainably,
        leading to prey reductions and subsequent unsuccessful breeding. The species
        is vulnerable to oil spills and other marine pollution. The species is also
        vulnerable to extreme weather events and storms, with large wrecks recorded
        following severe winter storms at sea. At the breeding colonies the species
        is vulnerable to invasive predators, such as rats, cats, and American Mink
        (\u003cem\u003eNeovison vison\u003c/em\u003e). The species is susceptible
        to being caught in gillnets, although other fishing gears may also catch significant
        numbers. Increasing numbers of offshore wind farms may result in displacement
        from habitat, although the risk of collision is considered very low (Bradbury
        \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2014). The species is hunted for human
        consumption in Iceland, and in the Faroe Islands (Thorup \u003cem\u003eet
        al.\u003c/em\u003e 2014).","measures":"\u003cstrong\u003eConservation Actions
        Underway\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eThe species is listed under the
        African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. The species is included in the Action
        plan for seabirds in Western-Nordic areas (2010). There are 76 marine Important
        Bird Areas identified across the European region. Within the EU there are
        40 Special Protection Areas which list this species as occurring within its
        boundaries. \u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConservation Actions
        Proposed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eFurther identification of important
        sites for this species, particularly in offshore regions and designation as
        marine protected areas; Identify the risks of different activities on seabirds,
        and locations sensitive to seabirds. Continue eradication of invasive predators
        from breeding colonies. Management of fisheries to ensure long term sustainability
        of key stocks (e.g. sand eels). Establish observer schemes for bycatch and
        prepare National/European Community plans of action on seabird bycatch. Continue
        AMAP monitoring of seabird contaminants; include new contaminants and secure
        communication between seabird and contaminants research. Increase the level
        of understanding among the public of introducing hunting restrictions. Develop
        codes-of-conduct for more organised activities (e.g. tourism). Ensure that
        appropriate protection (national laws and international agreements) applies
        to new areas and times in cases of changes in seabird migration routes and
        times.","use_trade":null,"rationale":"\u003cstrong\u003eEuropean regional
        assessment:\u0026#160;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEndangered (EN)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eEU28
        regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eIn
        Europe, this species has an extremely large range (its extent of occurrence
        (EOO) is much larger than 20,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is much
        larger than 2,000 km²), and hence it does not approach the thresholds for
        Vulnerable under the range size criteria (criteria B and D2). The population
        size is extremely large, (much larger than 10,000 mature individuals), and
        hence it does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population
        size criteria (criteria C and D). The probability of extinction has not been
        calculated for this species, therefore criterion E cannot be applied. The
        population trend appears to be decreasing at a very rapid rate which meets
        the thresholds for Endangered (EN) under the population size reduction criterion
        (criterion A). The species is therefore assessed as such in Europe. There
        is not considered to be significant potential for rescue from outside the
        region, and therefore the final category remains unchanged.\u0026#160;\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eIn
        the EU28, this species has a very large range (its extent of occurrence (EOO)
        is much larger than 20,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is much larger
        than 2,000 km²), and hence it does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable
        under the range size criteria (criteria B and D2). The population size is
        extremely large, (much larger than 10,000 mature individuals), and hence it
        does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size
        criteria (criteria C and D). The population trend appears to be increasing,
        and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under
        the population size reduction criterion (criterion A). The probability of
        extinction has not been calculated for this species, therefore criterion E
        cannot be applied. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern
        in the EU28.","trend_justification":"In Europe, the population size is estimated
        to have decreased by approximately 68% (best estimate) over the past 51 years
        (three generations) and is expected to decline at a similar rate between 1970-2021.  In
        the EU28, the population size is estimated to be increasing. These trends
        were calculated using the IUCN Criterion A tool, and based on Náttúrufræðistofnun
        Íslands\u0026#160;2018 and Fauchald \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026#160;2015,
        and on the national population figures provided in the Supplementary Information
        (see this document for details of national estimates).","taxonomic_notes":null},"biogeographical_realms":[{"description":{"en":"Palearctic"},"code":"7"}],"conservation_actions":[{"note":"","code":"5_4_4","description":{"en":"Scale
        unspecified"}},{"note":"","code":"1_1","description":{"en":"Site/area protection"}},{"note":"","code":"2_1","description":{"en":"Site/area
        management"}},{"note":"","code":"1_2","description":{"en":"Resource \u0026
        habitat protection"}},{"note":"","code":"4_3","description":{"en":"Awareness
        \u0026 communications"}},{"note":"","code":"2_2","description":{"en":"Invasive/problematic
        species control"}},{"note":"","code":"5_2","description":{"en":"Policies and
        regulations"}}],"faos":[],"habitats":[{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp"},"code":"9_7"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Pelagic"},"code":"9_1"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic
        (0-200m)"},"code":"10_1"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Subtidal
        Sandy-Mud"},"code":"9_5"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Subtidal
        Loose Rock/pebble/gravel"},"code":"9_3"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Oceanic - Mesopelagic
        (200-1000m)"},"code":"10_2"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel"},"code":"9_3"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Subtidal
        Sandy"},"code":"9_4"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline"},"code":"12_1"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Intertidal -
        Rocky Shoreline"},"code":"12_1"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Seagrass
        (Submerged)"},"code":"9_9"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud"},"code":"9_5"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Oceanic - Mesopelagic
        (200-1000m)"},"code":"10_2"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Intertidal - Tidepools"},"code":"12_6"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Subtidal
        Rock and Rocky Reefs"},"code":"9_2"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp"},"code":"9_7"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic
        (0-200m)"},"code":"10_1"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Grassland
        - Temperate"},"code":"4_4"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs"},"code":"9_2"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Pelagic"},"code":"9_1"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Coastal/Supratidal
        - Sea Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands"},"code":"13_1"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Grassland - Subarctic"},"code":"4_2"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Subtidal
        Sandy"},"code":"9_4"},{"majorImportance":"No","season":"Non-Breeding Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine
        Intertidal - Tidepools"},"code":"12_6"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Non-Breeding
        Season","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Marine Neritic - Seagrass
        (Submerged)"},"code":"9_9"}],"locations":[{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Belgium"},"code":"BE"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Spain"},"code":"ES"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Iceland"},"code":"IS"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Netherlands"},"code":"NL"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"United Kingdom"},"code":"GB"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Germany"},"code":"DE"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident","Passage"],"description":{"en":"France"},"code":"FR"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Malta"},"code":"MT"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Greenland"},"code":"GL"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Italy"},"code":"IT"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Origin
        Uncertain","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Seasonal Occurrence Uncertain"],"description":{"en":"Estonia"},"code":"EE"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Croatia"},"code":"HR"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Russian Federation"},"code":"RU"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Austria"},"code":"AT"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season","Passage"],"description":{"en":"Denmark"},"code":"DK"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Seasonal
        Occurrence Uncertain"],"description":{"en":"Serbia"},"code":"RS"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Finland"},"code":"FI"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season","Passage"],"description":{"en":"Gibraltar"},"code":"GI"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Sweden"},"code":"SE"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Origin
        Uncertain","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Seasonal Occurrence Uncertain"],"description":{"en":"Lithuania"},"code":"LT"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Ireland"},"code":"IE"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"European Russia"},"code":"RU-EU"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Faroe
        Islands"},"code":"FO"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Seasonal
        Occurrence Uncertain"],"description":{"en":"Montenegro"},"code":"ME"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Hungary"},"code":"HU"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Svalbard and Jan Mayen"},"code":"SJ"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Origin
        Uncertain","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Seasonal Occurrence Uncertain"],"description":{"en":"Latvia"},"code":"LV"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Norway"},"code":"NO"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Non-Breeding
        Season"],"description":{"en":"Portugal"},"code":"PT"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"Unknown","origin":"Vagrant","presence":"Extant","seasonality":null,"description":{"en":"Poland"},"code":"PL"}],"researches":[{"note":"","code":"1_5","description":{"en":"Threats"}},{"note":"","code":"3_1","description":{"en":"Population
        trends"}}],"use_and_trade":[{"international":null,"national":true,"other":null,"subsistence":true,"description":{"en":"Food
        - human"},"code":"1"},{"international":true,"national":null,"other":null,"subsistence":null,"description":{"en":"Pets/display
        animals, horticulture"},"code":"13"}],"threats":[{"scope":"Majority (50-90%)","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Medium
        Impact: 6","severity":"Slow, Significant Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":"Neogale
        vison","text":null,"description":{"en":"Named species"},"code":"8_1_2"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Unknown","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Habitat
        shifting \u0026 alteration"},"code":"11_1"},{"scope":"Minority (\u003c50%)","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Low
        Impact: 5","severity":"Slow, Significant Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Intentional
        use (species is the target)"},"code":"5_1_1"},{"scope":"Minority (\u003c50%)","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Low
        Impact: 5","severity":"Causing/Could cause fluctuations","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Renewable
        energy"},"code":"3_3"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Rapid
        Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Storms
        \u0026 flooding"},"code":"11_4"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Unknown","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Temperature
        extremes"},"code":"11_3"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Past, Likely to Return","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Past
        Impact","severity":"Rapid Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Oil
        spills"},"code":"9_2_1"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Rapid
        Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Unintentional
        effects: (large scale) [harvest]"},"code":"5_4_4"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Unknown","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Other
        impacts"},"code":"11_5"},{"scope":"Majority (50-90%)","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Medium
        Impact: 6","severity":"Slow, Significant Declines","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":"Unspecified
        Rattus","text":null,"description":{"en":"Named species"},"code":"8_1_2"},{"scope":"Unknown","timing":"Ongoing","internationalTrade":null,"score":"Unknown","severity":"Unknown","ancestry":null,"virus":null,"ias":null,"text":null,"description":{"en":"Type
        Unknown/Unrecorded"},"code":"9_2_3"}],"credits":[{"credit_type_name":"assessor","full":"BirdLife
        International","value":[" BirdLife International (BirdLife International)"]},{"credit_type_name":"evaluator","full":"Burfield,
        I. \u0026 Martin, R.","value":["Ian Burfield (BirdLife International)","Rob
        Martin (BirdLife)"]},{"credit_type_name":"contributor","full":"Ashpole, J,
        Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Tarzia, M, Wheatley, H. \u0026 Wright,
        L","value":["Ian Burfield (BirdLife International)","Joscelyne Ashpole (BirdLife)","Rob
        Pople (BirdLife International)","Christina Ieronymidou (BirdLife International)","Hannah
        Wheatley (BirdLife International)","Laura Wright (BirdLife)","M Tarzia (BirdLife)"]},{"credit_type_name":"facilitators","full":"Fernando,
        E., Grice, H., Piggott, A., Rutherford, C.A. \u0026 Staneva, A.","value":["Anna
        Staneva (BirdLIfe International)","Hannah Grice (RBG Kew)","Eresha Fernando
        (BirdLife International)","Claire Rutherford (BirdLife International)","Alexa
        Piggott (BirdLife International)"]}],"errata":[],"references":[{"citation":"del
        Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., and Sargatal, J. 1996. \u003ci\u003eHandbook of the
        Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks\u003c/i\u003e. Lynx Edicions,
        Barcelona, Spain.","year":"1996","title":"Handbook of the Birds of the World,
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        F., Bergl, R.A. \u0026 Williamson, E.A. 2018. Gorilla gorilla (amended version
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        and Republic of Congo. Until recently, the core population had an almost continuous
        distribution from southern CAR to the Congo River and west to the coast. Rivers
        are the primary geographic barrier for this taxon, followed by habitat fragmentation:
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        the region (Anthony \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2007, Fünfstück \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014, Fünfstück and Vigilant 2015).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eThe
        northwestern limit of the western lowland subspecies distribution is the Sanaga
        River in Cameroon; the northern limit is the forest-savanna boundary to a
        maximum of roughly 6°N; the eastern limit is the Ubangi River; the Congo River
        south of its confluence with the Ubangi then becomes the southeastern and
        southern limits all the way to the coast. Small outlying populations of the
        Cross River subspecies remain on the Nigeria-Cameroon border at the headwaters
        of the Cross River and in the proposed Ebo National Park in Cameroon. Most
        Western Gorillas are found below 500 m asl, but those living on mountains
        occasionally reach elevations of 1,900 m asl.","population":"Estimates of
        Gorilla population size are usually made using a standard index of abundance:
        night nest abundance and distribution, sometimes combined with predictive
        modelling.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.
        g. diehli\u003cbr/\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eIntensive surveys
        carried out in 1990–2005 suggested that approximately 250–300 Cross River
        Gorillas persist in a forested area of roughly 12,000 km² (Bergl 2006, Oates
        \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2007). Monitoring of the Gorillas at multiple
        sites and genetic analysis at select locations (Arandjelovic \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2015) has confirmed the small size of the subspecies population,
        while also documenting a larger geographic range than previously recorded
        (Bergl \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2012, Dunn \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2014). Cross River Gorillas occur in at least geographically distinct 11 localities
        (\u003cem\u003eibid\u003c/em\u003e.) Genetic evidence suggests that these
        subpopulations have had reproductive contact in the recent past (Bergl and
        Vigilant 2007); however, field surveys paired with remote sensing analysis
        reveal that forest corridors connecting subpopulations may no longer be functional
        as routes for dispersal (Imong \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.
        g. gorilla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eWestern Lowland
        Gorillas are found in almost all protected areas and many of the logging concessions
        in their range; they can persist at high densities in well-managed logging
        concessions (Morgan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2013).\u0026#160;
        Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2018) produced the first range-wide
        estimate for the subspecies, giving a total population in 2013 of 361,919
        (302,973-460,093). Their numbers declined by 19.4% between 2005 and 2013,
        corresponding to an annual loss of approximately 2.7% (\u003cem\u003eibid\u003c/em\u003e.).
        By the end of 2018, numbers will decline by a further 13.5% to roughly 316,000
        individuals.","habitats":"Western Gorillas are diurnal and semi-terrestrial.
        They build nests to sleep in every night, usually on the ground but sometimes
        in trees. They are social and live in stable, cohesive groups composed of
        one “silverback” adult male, several adult females and their offspring. Gorillas
        are not territorial and group ranges overlap extensively.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.
        g. diehli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eCross River Gorillas
        inhabit forests largely restricted to rough terrain in remote areas, although
        they occasionally use lowland areas between hills (Oates \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2003, Bergl and Vigilant 2007). This distribution appears
        to be directly related to greater levels of human activity (especially poaching)
        in lowland areas, rather than selection of areas that provide preferred foods
        (Imong \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2013, Sawyer and Brashares 2013).
        Group sizes range from 2 to 20 individuals and home ranges may be as large
        as 30 km² (McFarland 2007, Sunderland-Groves \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2009). The highly-seasonal nature of the Cross River Gorillas’ habitat (more
        markedly seasonal than that of other Gorilla populations) likely contributes
        to grouping and ranging patterns. Their diet reflects this seasonality, with
        terrestrial herbs and bark eaten as staples throughout the year, and fruit
        consumed during periods of seasonal abundance (McFarland 2007, De Vere \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2011, Etiendem and Tagg 2013, Sawyer and Brashares 2013).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.
        g. gorilla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eWestern Lowland
        Gorillas occur in both swamp and \u003cem\u003eterra firma\u003c/em\u003e
        lowland forests throughout Western Equatorial Africa. They are especially
        common where ground vegetation is dominated by monocotyledonous plants such
        as \u003cem\u003eHaumania liebrechtsiana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMegaphrynium
        macrostachyum\u003c/em\u003e (Rainey \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2009).
        Staple and fallback foods are pith of \u003cem\u003eAframomum\u003c/em\u003e
        spp. and leaves and shoots of the Marantaceae family, whereas fruit consumption
        varies greatly between seasons (Rogers \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2004). Some populations spend hours feeding on aquatic herbs in baïs and swamps.
        Social ants and termites are the only animal matter deliberately ingested.
        Group size averages 10, but is occasionally over 20 individuals, and annual
        home ranges are usually 10–25 km² (Williamson and Butynski 2013).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eLife
        History (as summarised in Williamson \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2013):
        Male Western Gorillas take 18 years to reach full maturity, and females take
        \u003cem\u003eca\u003c/em\u003e10 years. Length of the reproductive cycle
        is unknown. There is no birth season. Mean length of gestation is 256 days
        in captive Gorillas. Infant mortality up to three years of age is 22–65%.
        Infants suckle for 4–5 years, causing lactational amenorrhea in the mother.
        Interbirth intervals are 4–6 years. Western Gorillas appear to reproduce more
        slowly than Eastern Gorillas (\u003cem\u003eG. beringei\u003c/em\u003e). Maximum
        life span is unknown, but likely to be \u003cem\u003eca\u003c/em\u003e 40
        years. Generation time is estimated to be 22 years (see Appendix I in the
        supplementary material).","threats":"The two subspecies of Western Gorilla
        face similar threats, but to varying degrees in different regions.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ePoaching\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e
        - Despite the fact that all killing, capture or consumption of great apes
        is illegal, hunting for bushmeat is the primary driver of Western Gorilla
        decline. Current offtake levels are unsustainable – even legally-protected
        areas suffer high levels of poaching. The remaining population of Cross River
        Gorillas is small and fragmented, which puts each subpopulation at particular
        risk from poaching. While Gorillas do not generally appear to be targeted
        by hunters, it is estimated that opportunistic hunting removes at least 1–3
        Cross River Gorillas from the population each year. Additionally, snares targeting
        other species may trap Gorillas, causing injury or death. Until the mid-1990s,
        much of the Western Lowland Gorilla’s range included vast, roadless blocks
        of forest that were extremely difficult to access, where human population
        densities were very low and Gorilla densities high. In the last quarter century,
        however, almost all unprotected terra firma forest in this region has been
        allocated as logging concessions (Global Forest Watch 2016). This means that
        much of the once-remote, inaccessible forest is now covered by a network of
        logging roads (Laporte \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2007), which gives
        easy access to both hunters entering the forest and traffickers taking consignments
        of bushmeat (and ivory) out of the forest to distant destinations – often
        towns and cities where meat fetches high prices. Throughout Central Africa,
        mining permits for prospecting or resource extraction are being issued over
        an increasingly large surface area. As well as direct removal of Gorilla habitat,
        depending on the type of extraction, mining leads to very high rates of human
        immigration and the creation of yet more access roads, which are used for
        poaching (e.g., Edwards \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014). The region’s
        governance is typically poor (Transparency International 2016); the weak law
        enforcement and corruption that enable poaching are evident in ivory trafficking
        (Bennett 2014), but also widespread elsewhere (Bour \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2013). In addition, huge road projects that will substantially fragment Gorilla
        habitat are currently underway (Laurance \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2015). The ease and speed of transport is now orders of magnitude higher than
        before the creation of such access roads, and hunting pressures are much higher.
        Across their range, Gorilla densities are lowest near roads, except where
        forest guards operate control points or roadblocks (Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2018). In addition, human populations in these once remote
        areas have grown, as people migrate to the employment opportunities offered
        by logging companies (Wilkie \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2000, Poulsen
        \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2009).\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisease\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/u\u003e
        - The second major driver of Western Lowland Gorilla decline is infectious
        disease, specifically Ebola virus disease (EVD). Surveys carried out from
        the 1980s to the present day show that there were a series of massive great
        ape die-offs in a large, mostly-intact forested area straddling the border
        between northeastern Gabon and northwestern Congo, which includes several
        national parks and logging concessions (Walsh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2003; Maisels \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2004, 2013). Walsh \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. (2008) estimated that three quarters of Western Lowland
        Gorillas in six protected areas affected by \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e
        were lost between 1995 and 2000. Typical mortality rate during the worst disease
        outbreaks was 95% (Bermejo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2006, Caillaud
        \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2006). In protected areas, populations
        hit by disease began to recover within a decade (e.g., Genton \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2012); however, total recovery would take 75–131 years
        in the absence of poaching, which is an unlikely scenario (Ryan and Walsh
        2011). Ebola virus has already been detected to the east of the Mambili River,
        a major river barrier between Odzala-Kokoua National Park and the Sangha River
        (Reed \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014). Although rivers and forest
        fragmentation seem to present a partial barrier to the spread of Ebola, large
        numbers of Gorillas could be wiped out in a short space of time, as transmission
        between individuals is rapid and large areas can be affected by a single outbreak
        (Walsh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2007, 2009). The small size of
        the Cross River population means it is also highly vulnerable to infectious
        disease. \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e has not been reported in
        the Cross River Gorillas, but their close proximity to dense human populations
        and livestock heightens the risks of disease transmission (Dunn \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014).\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eHabitat
        degradation and destruction\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e - Habitat loss
        is emerging as a major threat to Western Gorillas. As oil-palm plantations
        in Asia reach capacity, Africa is becoming the new frontier for this crop,
        offering excellent economic prospects in countries with appropriate rainfall,
        soil and temperatures (Rival and Lavang 2014). Unfortunately, such areas coincide
        with good Gorilla habitat: 73.8% of the Western Lowland Gorilla’s range is
        considered suitable for oil palm (Wich \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2014). The recent expansion of industrial-scale mineral extraction and the
        creation of open-pit mines are of great concern (Edwards \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014, Lanjouw 2014), and also lead to the establishment
        of development corridors, which can be several kilometres wide and add to
        areas of “lost forest” (Laurance \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2015).
        There is a disconnect between the various bodies responsible for land-use
        planning in the realms of conservation, mining and agriculture in all Western
        Gorilla range states except Gabon. Consequently, there is increasing competition
        for land between long-term conservation needs and immediate financial gain
        as governments explore the potential of clearing natural habitat in favour
        of economic development. Without careful and immediate land-use planning that
        involves cooperation between the government bodies responsible for protected
        areas and wildlife on one hand, and economic and agricultural development
        on the other, large areas of Western Lowland Gorilla habitat could be cleared
        within a few decades. The lack of effective protected area management throughout
        much of the Cross River Gorilla’s range combined with the lack of protected
        status for much of the Gorillas’ habitat in Cameroon, threatens the future
        availability of habitat suitable for the population. Conversion of forest
        for agriculture and grazing is occurring rapidly in many parts of the Gorillas’
        range and the largest protected areas in which Cross River Gorillas occur
        contain enclaves of human settlements whose farmlands have spread beyond their
        legal boundaries. Expansion of these settlements and associated development
        of access routes in the form of roads and bridges inside the protected areas
        exacerbate subdivision of the Cross River Gorilla population. In both Cameroon
        and Nigeria, the construction and improvement of roads outside protected areas
        also threatens to increase subdivision of Gorilla populations through habitat
        disturbance and intensification of forest resource extraction. Increasing
        access will also exacerbate poaching pressure. While most habitat loss in
        the region is the result of small-scale agriculture, commercial logging and
        industrial agriculture (e.g., for oil palm) are also impending threats.\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eClimate
        change\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e - Climate change will affect both
        subspecies of Western Gorilla, as it is already thought to be affecting the
        Central African tropical moist forests (Lewis \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2013). Although the likely impacts of global climate change are not yet known,
        some predictions suggest a drying of this region with potentially negative
        consequences for forest ecology, such as changes in fruit and flower phenology,
        forest productivity and increased vulnerability to fire, and even forest retreat
        (James et al. 2013). Seasonal changes in precipitation and temperature, and
        weather extremes are likely ongoing and set to continue (Lovett 2015). Negative
        impacts on great apes have already been predicted (Lehmann \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2010), particularly along the coast (Korstjens \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2010). Climate change is the least likely factor for which
        effective action for great apes and for African tropical forests in general
        can be taken in a timely manner. Climate talks in 2015 resulted in international
        cooperative agreement between most of the world’s nations regarding the need
        for action; however, the task of reversing, or even flattening current temperature
        trends will be extremely challenging.\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eFor more
        details, see the two \u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla\u003c/em\u003e subspecies
        assessments.\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e","measures":"National and international
        laws controlling hunting or capture of Gorillas exist in all habitat countries,
        but enforcement of protective legislation is inconsistent or lacking throughout
        much of the species’ range. \u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla\u003c/em\u003e is
        listed under Appendix I of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eOnly
        ~22% of Western Lowland Gorillas live inside protected areas, which cover
        ~14% of their geographic range (Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2018). A further 20% are found in FSC-certified logging concessions, adding
        up to 8% of the range (Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2018).
        Although forest guards work in many protected areas and in the well-managed
        logging concessions, 58% of Western Lowland Gorillas and 77% of their range
        are unprotected and highly vulnerable to poachers.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eThe
        Cross River Gorilla population is small and fragmented and their habitat is
        surrounded by some of the most densely populated human settlements in Africa.
        Approximately 30% of Cross River Gorillas occur outside of protected areas
        and many important habitat corridors between subpopulations exist as ungazetted
        land. The recent creation of new protected areas in Cameroon combined with
        existing protected areas in Nigeria, provides the legal framework for habitat
        protection and the control of hunting. However, effective management of these
        reserves remains a challenge. Illegal activities, including poaching, occur
        in all the region’s protected areas. Resources, equipment and training, in
        addition to proper oversight are needed for these areas to operate effectively.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eTargeted
        conservation action plans have been produced for both Cross River Gorillas
        (Oates \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2007, Dunn \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2014) and Western Lowland Gorillas (Tutin \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2005, IUCN 2014). A series of recommendations have been outlined, which can
        be broadly encapsulated as:\u003cbr/\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003eAn increase
        in effective law enforcement throughout the region, not only in protected
        areas, but also in logging concessions and unprotected forests. Law enforcement
        needs to be supported by updated regulations and sanctions.\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eEffective,
        coordinated land-use planning to avoid the clearing of intact Gorilla habitat
        to establish industrial plantations, for oil palm in particular (IUCN SSC
        Primate Specialist Group 2014). Industrial extraction of other natural resources,
        namely timber and minerals, should be included in a holistic, spatially-explicit
        approach. Such planning needs to be done at both national and regional levels.
        Several of the most important areas for Gorilla conservation are transboundary,
        and thus fall within the remit of national agencies from two or three countries.\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eAwareness
        raising among all sectors that deal with land and the protection of natural
        resources: law enforcement and judiciary; protected area authorities; mining,
        logging and agricultural industries; local communities and tour operators.
        This outreach effort should include specific information on minimising human
        impacts, such as preventing transmission of human diseases to great apes.
        Recommendations for logging companies regarding management practices that
        are compatible with great ape conservation (Morgan and Sanz 2007, Morgan \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2013) can be downloaded here: \u003ca href=\"http://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_logging\"\u003ehttp://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_logging\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eFurther
        research into ways of mitigating the spread and virulence of \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e,
        such as administering vaccines that are non-detrimental to the target species
        (great apes) or other species that may come into contact with the vaccine,
        and that protect a sufficiently large and geographically appropriate proportion
        of the great ape population to form barriers against its spread. IUCN guidelines
        on great apes and disease (Gilardi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2015)
        are available here: \u003ca href=\"http://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_disease\"\u003ehttp://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_disease\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eImplement
        standardised monitoring of law enforcement effort and effectiveness, of Gorilla
        abundance and of great ape health, particularly with respect to \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e.
        A standardised tool for law enforcement monitoring (SMART: \u003ca href=\"http://www.smartconservationsoftware.org\"\u003ehttp://www.smartconservationsoftware.org\u003c/a\u003e)
        is already in use at many sites; standard methods for surveying and monitoring
        great ape populations that facilitate more accurate and precise monitoring
        of changes in abundance have been in use for about a decade (Kühl \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2008 \u003ca href=\"http://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_surveys\"\u003ehttp://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_surveys\u003c/a\u003e);
        and non-invasive diagnosis of a range of pathogens is now possible, for example,
        detection of \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e in faeces (Reed \u003cem\u003eet
        al\u003c/em\u003e. 2014).\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003eSpecifically for Cross
        River Gorillas, the key conservation need for their long-term survival is
        allowing the population to expand. Since significant areas of unoccupied Gorilla
        habitat remain across the landscape, population growth is feasible if levels
        of hunting and other human activities can be reduced. Maintenance (or re-establishment)
        of habitat connectivity between areas currently occupied by Gorillas is essential
        for future population expansion.\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003eMaintaining
        well-protected areas of forest will be key to maintaining Gorilla populations
        in the long term, and this can only be done through the conservation strategies
        detailed in the action plans. These are presented in greater detail in the
        action plans than is possible here. The documents can be downloaded at: \u003ca
        href=\"http://www.primate-sg.org/action_plans\"\u003ehttp://www.primate-sg.org/action_plans\u003c/a\u003e","use_trade":"\u003cp\u003eGorillas
        are completely protected by national and international laws in all countries
        of their range, and it is, therefore, illegal to kill, capture or trade in
        live Gorillas or their body parts.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","rationale":"\u003cem\u003eGorilla
        gorilla\u003c/em\u003e has a large geographic range, covering over 700,000
        km². The size of the population in 2013 was estimated to be almost 362,000
        individuals\u0026#160; (Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2018).
        Only a very small number of Western Gorillas are the \u003cem\u003eG. g. diehli\u003c/em\u003e
        subspecies, therefore this rationale focuses on the \u003cem\u003eG. g. gorilla\u003c/em\u003e
        subspecies. The country of Gabon lost over half its Gorilla population between
        1983 and 2000 (Walsh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2003). More recent
        population declines have been estimated using a predictive model that incorporated
        survey data collected between 2003 and 2013 across the entire range of Western
        Lowland Gorillas. The results reveal an 19.4% decline between 2005 and 2013,
        corresponding to an annual loss of ~2.7% (Strindberg \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2018). These population decreases were driven by poaching and disease (\u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e)
        outbreaks.\u003cbr/\u003e\u003cbr/\u003eDespite their abundance and wide geographic
        range, Western Gorillas qualify as Critically Endangered under criterion A:
        a population reduction of more than 80% over three generations (one generation
        is ~22 years). This listing is based on ongoing population losses due to illegal
        hunting, disease and habitat loss: poaching is intensifying with the expansion
        of access routes into forests and Zaire \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e
        remains a highly significant threat. At a conservative rate of reduction (2.7%
        per year rather than 4%, calculated from Walsh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e.
        2003), the reduction in the Western Gorilla population is predicted to exceed
        80% over three generations (i.e., 66 years, 2005–2071). Illegal hunting has
        not ceased despite intense anti-poaching efforts, and the threat of \u003cem\u003eEbolavirus\u003c/em\u003e
        has not been removed. In addition, the scale of habitat conversion to industrial
        agriculture will increase, and the effects of climate change will become more
        evident. \u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla\u003c/em\u003e thus qualifies as Critically
        Endangered (A4bcde).","trend_justification":null,"taxonomic_notes":"\u003cp\u003eThe
        Western Gorilla (\u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla\u003c/em\u003e) has two recognized
        subspecies: the Western Lowland Gorilla (\u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla gorilla\u003c/em\u003e)
        and the Cross River Gorilla (\u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla diehli\u003c/em\u003e:
        Sarmiento and Oates 2000, Groves 2001). Genetic data suggest that the two
        subspecies of Western Gorilla diverged approximately 18,000 years ago (Thalmann
        \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2011) and that the Cross River Gorilla
        population can be clearly differentiated from Western Lowland Gorillas (Prado-Martinez
        \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2013). The taxonomic status of the Gorilla
        populations in Ebo (Cameroon) awaits clarification; however, measurements
        from a single Ebo Gorilla skull indicate this may be a relict population of
        a previously more widespread population living north of the Sanaga River (Groves
        2005).\u003cbr/\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},"biogeographical_realms":[{"description":{"en":"Afrotropical"},"code":"0"}],"conservation_actions":[{"note":"","code":"2_1","description":{"en":"Site/area
        management"}},{"note":"","code":"5_4_2","description":{"en":"National level"}},{"note":"","code":"5_3","description":{"en":"Private
        sector standards \u0026 codes"}},{"note":"","code":"1_2","description":{"en":"Resource
        \u0026 habitat protection"}},{"note":"","code":"4_3","description":{"en":"Awareness
        \u0026 communications"}},{"note":"","code":"4_2","description":{"en":"Training"}},{"note":"","code":"4_1","description":{"en":"Formal
        education"}},{"note":"","code":"1_1","description":{"en":"Site/area protection"}},{"note":"","code":"3_2","description":{"en":"Species
        recovery"}}],"faos":[],"habitats":[{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Resident","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Forest
        - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp"},"code":"1_8"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Resident","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Forest
        - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland"},"code":"1_6"},{"majorImportance":"Yes","season":"Resident","suitability":"Suitable","description":{"en":"Forest
        - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane"},"code":"1_9"}],"locations":[{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"No","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Nigeria"},"code":"NG"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"No","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Gabon"},"code":"GA"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"No","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Equatorial
        Guinea (mainland)"},"code":"EQG-OO"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"No","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Congo"},"code":"CG"},{"is_endemic":false,"formerlyBred":"No","origin":"Native","presence":"Extant","seasonality":["Resident"],"description":{"en":"Central
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  recorded_at: 2025-04-30 22:23:45 GMT
  recorded_with: vcr/1.6.0, webmockr/1.0.0
